Design, Electromechanical Dynamics, and Metrological Evaluation of an Electromagnetic Solenoid Engine

Abstract

This paper presents the comprehensive design, fabrication, electromechanical dynamics, and metrological characterization of a functional working model of an Electromagnetic Solenoid Engine. Developed as a sustainable prime-mover concept, the engine replaces fossil fuel combustion with electromagnetic actuation, utilizing copper-wound solenoids to convert electrical energy into reciprocating plunger motion, which is subsequently converted into continuous rotational torque via a mechanical crankshaft and flywheel linkage. The experimental prototype was operated under varying DC supply voltages (12–48 V) and controlled via an Arduino-driven Pulse-Width Modulation (PWM) circuit integrated with MOSFET switches and optocouplers. Metrological characterization was conducted to evaluate critical dynamic parameters including air-gap clearance (8–25 mm), stroke length tolerance (±0.2 mm), coil inductance variation (15–40 mH), rotational speed (600–1,800 RPM), peak torque output (0.5–2.5 Nm), and thermal dissipation rates. Experimental findings indicate an overall energy conversion efficiency between 18% and 35%, limited primarily by resistive I²R heating and magnetic flux leakage. The system demonstrates zero direct atmospheric emissions, exceptionally quiet acoustic operation (<60 dB), and complete compatibility with solar photovoltaic energy sources. The study provides critical engineering insights and framework for scaling electromagnetic propulsion systems for educational, agricultural, and low-power off-grid applications.

Introduction

The text presents the design, fabrication, and experimental evaluation of a solenoid (electromagnetic piston) engine developed at Government Polytechnic Muzaffarpur. The engine is proposed as an alternative to conventional internal combustion engines because it produces no direct exhaust emissions, operates relatively quietly, and can run directly from low-voltage DC sources such as solar panels.

The paper explains that solenoid engines convert the linear electromagnetic attraction of a coil and plunger into rotary motion using a connecting rod, crankshaft, and flywheel. It reviews the historical development of electromagnetic engines, beginning with Joseph Henry's work in the 1830s, and discusses modern advances such as NdFeB magnets, MOSFET switching, sensors, microcontrollers, and FEM-based magnetic analysis.

The theoretical section describes the relationship between magnetic field, electromagnetic force, plunger position, and crankshaft motion. A major design challenge is the rapid reduction of electromagnetic force as the air gap increases. Precise timing of coil energization and de-energization is therefore essential for efficient operation.

The fabricated prototype uses an 800-turn copper solenoid, soft-iron/NdFeB plunger, 32 mm cylinder bore, 30 mm stroke, Arduino Uno, IRFZ44N MOSFET, and a 1.8 kg flywheel. An IR sensor provides crankshaft-position feedback so that the solenoid can be switched at appropriate points in the cycle. Metrological measurements were also performed to control air-gap, cylinder clearance, inductance, temperature, voltage, and current.

Experimental testing at 12–48 V DC showed that increasing voltage increased speed and torque but did not necessarily improve efficiency. The best balance occurred at 24 V, producing approximately 1,180 RPM, 1.25 Nm torque, and 14.9% efficiency. At 48 V, mechanical output increased to 45.09 W, but efficiency fell to 9.9% because of copper heating, magnetic saturation, and eddy-current losses. High-voltage operation also caused winding temperatures to reach 85–110°C within six minutes. PWM control reduced thermal buildup by about 38% while retaining 88% of full torque.

The paper identifies potential applications in low-power and off-grid rural systems, particularly solar-powered water pumps, agricultural equipment, ventilation systems, and small workshop machinery. However, further improvements are required for commercial use. Suggested research includes better winding materials, laminated magnetic cores, multi-cylinder configurations, and adaptive closed-loop electronic control.

Conclusion

This project successfully demonstrates the design, fabrication, and performance characterization of a functional Electromagnetic Solenoid Engine model. The study proves that direct conversion of electrical energy into reciprocating mechanical power via timed electromagnetic actuation is technically viable and pollution-free. The experimental single-cylinder prototype achieved speeds up to 1,780 RPM and peak torque of 2.42 Nm. Precision metrology of air-gap tolerances, cylinder honing, and microcontroller pulse-timing proved critical to maximizing mechanical output. While overall efficiency (13–15%) currently limits high-power vehicular applications, the solenoid engine serves as a highly effective educational platform and a viable low-cost prime mover for solar-integrated, off-grid rural machinery. Future refinements in magnetic materials and adaptive electronic controls hold significant promise for advancing zero-emission electromechanical engineering.

References

This project successfully demonstrates the design, fabrication, and performance characterization of a functional Electromagnetic Solenoid Engine model. The study proves that direct conversion of electrical energy into reciprocating mechanical power via timed electromagnetic actuation is technically viable and pollution-free. The experimental single-cylinder prototype achieved speeds up to 1,780 RPM and peak torque of 2.42 Nm. Precision metrology of air-gap tolerances, cylinder honing, and microcontroller pulse-timing proved critical to maximizing mechanical output. While overall efficiency (13–15%) currently limits high-power vehicular applications, the solenoid engine serves as a highly effective educational platform and a viable low-cost prime mover for solar-integrated, off-grid rural machinery. Future refinements in magnetic materials and adaptive electronic controls hold significant promise for advancing zero-emission electromechanical engineering.

Copyright

Copyright © 2026 Vinay Ranjan Kumar, Ajay Kumar, Mr. Manish Kumar, Aditya Kumar, Ayush Kumar, Avinash Kumar, Mr. Satyam Kumar, Anand Kumar. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.